The full unit slides are here as an editable Google Slides presentation.

Download the powerpoint (.ppt) here

Although Thomas Jefferson advocated for a statewide public education system, Virginia did not establish one until after the Civil War. Before this, private academies and common schools were all that existed, but the Virginia General Assembly did authorize a “literacy fund” that supplied each county with a limited amount of funding for children whose parents could not afford tuition.1  Additionally, localities could also raise taxes if they wanted to add to the fund.2 Norfolk city and county, for example, maintained public schools for its white children, but in many counties the literacy fund was inadequate and considered a “failure.”3 

For some Virginians, however, education was illegal. Providing instruction to enslaved people or free African Americans violated the law. But a small number of white Virginians risked the high fine associated with educating Black people, and some enslaved Virginians risked severe punishment to attain literacy.4 John B. Smith, born in southwestern Campbell County and with six different enslavers (his first was Ralph Smith and his last was Rev. Milton Bishop), at approximately age 20 was hired out. The children of his first enslaver (Ralph Smith’s daughter Susan, who was married to Rev. Bishop) secretly provided him with reading lessons.  While enslaved in North Carolina, he learned to write.5 After the Civil War, the Freedmen’s Bureau created schools for African Americans, and in 1869 a statewide public school system was authorized.6 John B. Smith, the founding pastor at several Appomattox and Campbell County Black churches, acquired a teaching license, taught into the early twentieth century and served as a member of Board of Managers of the Virginia Seminary of Lynchburg (an HBCU; now Virginia University of Lynchburg).7  

Thus, in communities throughout Virginia, individuals from diverse backgrounds served in a variety of educational roles. We will examine and analyze the educational leadership, contributions and policies established by Appomattox, Cumberland, Franklin and Northampton Counties. 

This unit can encompass the following Standards of Learning:

  • US II 3: The student will apply social science skills to understand the effects of Reconstruction on American life by;
    • a) analyzing the impact of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution of the United States and how they changed the meaning of citizenship;
    • b) describing the impact of Reconstruction policies on the South and North; and
    • c) describing the legacies of Abraham Lincoln, Robert E. Lee, and Frederick Douglass. 
  • USII 4: The student will apply social science skills to understand how life changed after the Civil War by 
    • c) describing racial segregation, the rise of “Jim Crow,” and other constraints faced by African Americans and other groups in the post-Reconstruction South;

Footnotes:

  • 1) Julienne, Marianne, and Brent Tarter. “Public School System in Virginia, Establishment of the” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (13 Dec. 2021). Web. 03 Sep. 2022.
  • 2) Whitworth, William Maphis Jr., “Cumberland County, Virginia, in the late antebellum period, 1840-1860” (1991). Master’s Theses
  • 3) Julienne, Marianne, and Brent Tarter. “Public School System in Virginia, Establishment of the” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (13 Dec. 2021). Web. 03 Sep. 2022.
  • 4) Bly, Antonio. “Slave Literacy and Education in Virginia” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (26 Apr. 2021). Web. 02 Sep. 2022.
  • 5) Smith, John B., “The Autobiography of John B. Smith” (1898) and Lafferty, John James. “Sketches of the Virginia Conference, Methodist Epioiscple Church, South” Rev. Milton L. Bishop. Find A Grave.  Web. 03 Sep. 2022.
  • 6) Julienne, Marianne, and Brent Tarter. “Public School System in Virginia, Establishment of the” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (13 Dec. 2021). Web. 03 Sep. 2022.
  • 7.) Smith, John B., “The Autobiography of John B. Smith” (1898).
Download

The Interactive Map, 360 Tours, and activities are best used after covering Reconstruction and post civil war standards based content (3a, 3b, 3c and 4c) in class. Each county has information on lawmakers, Freedmen’s Schools, the first county Superintendent, segregation, the establishment and funding of schools etc.  There are a few items (WPA buildings, African American Business Ownership, Lost Cause and Monuments etc.) that had examples found in most or all the counties but were only included in one or two of the counties in order to include more thematic elements with-in the content. Explain to students that some of the terminology found in some primary sources uses dated language (African American and white sources use the terms negro and colored). Encourage students to do activities for the two counties that they pick (Student Choice). Please adapt the slides and activities to meet your students’ needs, to any IEP, 504 or ELL accommodations.

For the performance task, remind students that an impact can be positive or negative. While many students can perform this independently, you may provide student support and provide feedback following the learning activities leading up the performance task as needed.  Remind students to use complete sentences, state their claim, name sources (title of slide, newspaper article, image etc..) and provide evidence (in their own words from the source). I encourage teachers to add information and sources for their county or school division. The links listed below were the most useful for background information and finding primary sources.

  • Who (person or group) had the most salient impact (local, state or national) on Virginia Public Education?
  • How did the Representative Government become more representative of all people following the Civil War? 
  • What were the legislative priorities of the political parties following the Civil War?  
  • How did former enslavers impact public education?
  • How did the formerly enslaved impact education?
  • What were the inequalities of Public Education?
  • How did local communities impact Public Education?
  • What role did faith communities have in post civil war era education?
  • Students will analyze primary sources from Appomattox, Cumberland, Franklin and Northampton counties from the late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century. 
  • Students will use primary sources to evaluate historic figures and organizations to determine if they had a positive or negative impact on Public Education.
  • Students will use primary sources to connect various political and economic viewpoints with their impact on Public Education.   

Salient– standing out or of notable significance

Impact– the force of impression of one thing on another or a significant or major effect

General Assembly– The Virginia General Assembly makes the law for the Commonwealth of Virginia (self)

Enslaver– to reduce a person into slavery

Civil Rights– the nonpolitical rights of a citizen

Debt– a state of being under obligation to pay or repay someone

Gerrymandered–  the practice of dividing or arranging a territorial unit into election districts in a way that gives one political party an unfair advantage in elections

Superintendent–  one who has executive oversight and charge

Jukebox– a coin-operated phonograph or compact-disc player that automatically plays recordings selected from its list

Dormitory–  a residence hall providing rooms for individuals or for groups usually without private baths

Consolidation–  the unification of two or more corporations by dissolution of existing ones and creation of a single new corporation

Normal School-a usually 2-year school for training chiefly elementary teachers

Entrepreneur– one who organizes, manages, and assumes the risks of a business

Appointed– chosen for a particular job

The full unit slides are here as an editable Google Slides presentation (this is the same PowerPoint found above).

Download the powerpoint (.ppt) here

View the PowerPoint below; it is recommended to use Google Slides or download this presentation for the clickable hyperlinks throughout.

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Interactive Map with links to 360 degree Tours

Day One:

Students will choose a county (Appomattox, Cumberland, Franklin or Northampton)  from the Interactive Map. 

Link: Interactive Map is in the Google Slides

Students will use the interactive map to complete the questions for their chosen county: 

Worksheet to complete for 2 counties (student choice)

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Day Two:

Students will choose a 2nd county from the Interactive Map. 

Link: Interactive Map is in the Google Slides

Students will complete the questions for their 2nd chosen county: 

Day Three:

Students will focus on the similarities and differences of their two counties.  They may use their completed questions and the interactive map to complete a Venn Diagram.

Day Four:

Students will complete a top 5 list on who (individual or group) had the biggest impact on public education? 

Students may use their completed questions, Venn Diagram and the interactive map to complete the top 5 list.

For each item students must provide the reason why the person or organization is in the top 5 with a source. 

Day Five:

Performance Task: Students will complete a detailed written response to the prompt. 

Prompt: Who (person or organization/group) had the most salient impact (local, state or national) on Virginia Public Education?

Please use complete sentences, state your claim, name sources (title of slide, newspaper article headline, image title etc..)  and provide evidence (in your own words from the sources).

When students have completed the performance task, please score the students work samples with the rubric (based off the VDOE guidelines) in accordance with your school division’s balanced assessment plan.

Post Civil War (3a, 3b, 3c, and 4c) Performance Task Rubric

PDF Version

Google Doc Version

Recommended Reading to Acquire Background Information (For Teachers) 

Dailey, Jane Elizabeth. Before Jim Crow: The Politics of Race in Postemancipation Virginia. United Kingdom, University of North Carolina Press, 2000.

Deutsch, Stephanie. You Need a Schoolhouse: Booker T. Washington, Julius Rosenwald, and the Building of Schools for the Segregated South. United States, Northwestern University Press, 2011.

Marilyn M. White, “We Lived On an ‘Island”‘: An Afro-American Family and Community in Rural Virginia, 1865-1940 (1983).

Footnotes for the Title and Interactive Map Slides

1)Julienne, Marianne, and Brent Tarter. “Public School System in Virginia, Establishment of the” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (13 Dec. 2021). Web. 03 Sep. 2022.

2)Whitworth, William Maphis Jr., “Cumberland County, Virginia, in the late antebellum period, 1840-1860” (1991). Master’s Theses

3)Bly, Antonio. “Slave Literacy and Education in Virginia” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (26 Apr. 2021). Web. 02 Sep. 2022.

4)Smith, John B., “The Autobiography of John B. Smith” (1898).

5)  Lafferty, John James. “Sketches of the Virginia Conference, Methodist Epioiscple Church, South” Rev. Milton L. Bishop. Find A Grave.  Web. 03 Sep. 2022.

6)Confederate States Of America. Army. Dept. Of Northern Virginia. Chief Engineer’s Office, Albert H Campbell, and C. S Dwight. Map of Campbell Co. [S.l.: Chief Engineer’s Office, D.N.V, 1864] Map. Library of Congress, Web. 9 Sep. 2022.

7) Gruver A.B. “Virginia Teachers Directory” Shenandoah Normal College, 1900 Web. 03 Sep. 2022. 

8) Rand McNally and Company, 1894; from Rand McNally and Company’s Encyclopedia and Gazetteer (Virginia Map),  University of Alabama Map Library Web. 01 May 2022.

Footnotes for the Northampton County Slides

1) Virginia County Map and Independent Cities GIS Geography Web. 03 Sep. 2022.

2) Graham, H. S, and E Hergesheimer. Map of Virginia: showing the distribution of its slave population from the census of. Washington: Henry S. Graham, 1861. Map. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, Web. 5 Sep. 2022.

3) Nora Miller Turman, “The Eastern shore of Virginia, 1603–1964” (1964).

4) Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1896; from Enlarged Business Atlas University of Alabama Map Library  Web. 18 Sep. 2022.

5) “Our Town” Exmore Virginia. Web. 17 Sep. 2022.

6) American Missionary Association Eastville, VA Office Letters 1869-1876 Archive Record, Eastern Shore Public Library Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

7) Butchart, Ronald. “Freedmen’s Education in Virginia, 1861–1870” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (07 Dec. 2020). Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

8) Daily Dispatch, October 28, 1867 ”The Convention Election Returns” The Virginia Chronicle Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

9) The Daily State Journal February 9, 1871 “The Legislature of Virginia”  The Virginia Chronicle Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

10) Gunter, Donald, and Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “Peter Jacob Carter (1845–1886)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

11) The Southern Workman March 1, 1878 “A Colored Orator” Virginia Chronicle Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

12) Eastern Shore Herald July 28, 1911, “Us” Virginia Chronicle Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

13) Luther P Jackson, Negro Office Holders in Virginia 1865—1895 (1945) Hathi Trust Digital Library Web. 13 Oct 2022.

14)  Dickerson, Dennis. “Luther Porter Jackson (1892–1950)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

15) The Daily Dispatch December 5, 1974 “School Superintendents Appointed” Virginia Chronicle Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

16) “About the Daily Dispatch” The Library of Congress  Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

17) 1860 Census and Slave Schedules, Eastville, Northampton County, VA.

18) 1872 Virginia Superintendent of Instruction Report Hathi Trust Digital Library Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

19) Gruver A.B. “Virginia Teachers Directory” Shenandoah Normal College, 1900 Web. 03 Sep. 2022. 

20) The Eastern Shore Herald September 22, 1905“Meeting of the Textbook Committee” Virginia Chronicle Web. 03 Sep. 2022. 

21) High School, Cape Charles c1893 The Countryside Transformed: The Railroad and the Eastern Shore of Virginia 1870 – 1935 Web. Sun. 18 Sep. 2022.

22) High School, Cape Charles c1912 The Countryside Transformed: The Railroad and the Eastern Shore of Virginia 1870 – 1935  Web. Sun. 18 Sep. 2022.

23) Postcard depicting Franktown-Nassawadox High School. The Countryside Transformed: The Railroad and the Eastern Shore of Virginia 1870 – 1935 Web.  Sun. 18 Sep. 2022.

24) Postcard depicting high school, Cheriton The Countryside Transformed: The Railroad and the Eastern Shore of Virginia 1870 – 1935   Web. Sun. 17 Sep. 2022.

25) The Eastern Shore Herald, September 8, 1917 Virginia Chronicle  Web. 03 Sep. 2022. 

26) The Eastern Shore Herald, April 1, 1922 Virginia Chronicle Web. 03 Sep. 2022.

27) The Eastern Shore Herald, September 29, 1917 Virginia Chronicle Web. 03 Sep. 2022. 

28) The Eastern Shore Herald, August  23, 1924 Virginia Chronicle  Web. 03 Sep. 2022. 

29) Kneebone, John. “Ku Klux Klan in Virginia” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (20 Apr. 2022). Web. 20 Oct. 2022.

30) “About Eastern Shore Herald”, The Library Of Congress  Web. 20 Oct. 2022.

31) Pellicer, Metty V., “Invisible History: Growing Up Colored in Cape Charles, Virginia A Memoir by Tom Godwin” (2020). 

32) Smith, Laura. “Shore Profiles: Roxey Joynes” Sunday Historical (25 Apr. 2021).  Web. 20 Oct. 2022.

33) Mason Avenue, Cape Charles, Viewed from the Hump, 1930s The Countryside Transformed: The Railroad and the Eastern Shore of Virginia 1870 – 1935  Web. 20 Oct. 2022.

34) Cape Charles Rosenwald School Restoration Initiative Web. 20 Oct. 2022.

35) “Site of the Tidewater Institute” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities,. Web. 03 Sep. 2022.   

36) “NCHS History”  Northampton County High School Alumni Foundation Inc., Web.  17 Sep. 2022.

37) Davis, Jackson. Meeting of Negroes At Tidewater Institute- Industrial Exhibit Superintendent E.G. Lankard Speaking University of Virginia Library Web. 17 Sep. 2022.

Cape Charles Elementary School 360 Tour

Image Works Cited

Cape Charles School, 19–, Library of Virginia Web. 2 Nov 2022.

“A Historic Meeting.” Julius Rosenwald and Booker T. Washington: How Their Investment in People Led from Tragedy to Triumph Web. 29 Oct. 2022.

“Rosenwald School Floor Plans”, History South Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

“Eastern Shore Teachers; 1948-1949 School Session.” The Eastern Shore Herald, September 9, 1948 Virginia Chronicle Web. 2 Nov. 2022.

“1948 Wescott Point, VA USGS Map”, Historical Topographic Maps – Preserving the Past Web. 2 Nov. 2022.

“Cape Charles Colored School” Cape Charles in Northampton County, The Historical Marker Database (13 Oct. 2012) Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

Content Works Cited

McClure, Phyllis. “Rosenwald Schools” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (28 Sep. 2021). Web. 02 Nov. 2022.

“Rosenwald Schools in Virginia” National Register Form, Virginia Department of Historic Resources (12 Aug. 2004) Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

“Annual Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction of the Commonwealth of Virginia with Accompanying Documents: School Years 1928-29 and 1929-30” Hathi Trust Digital Library. Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

“Rosenwald School Floor Plans” History South Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

Davis, Dianne In-person Interview 7 Jul. 2022.

Cape Charles Rosenwald School Restoration Initiative Web. 20 Oct. 2022.

Footnotes for the Franklin County Slides

1) Virginia County Map and Independent Cities GIS Geography Web. 03 Sep. 2022. 

2) Graham, H. S, and E Hergesheimer. Map of Virginia: showing the distribution of its slave population from the census of. Washington: Henry S. Graham, 1861. Map. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, Web. 5 Sep. 2022.

3) Keppel, Patricia,”But Did YOu Know…Prohibition and Franklin County, The Moonshine Capital of the World”, Virginia is for Lovers (29 Ju.l 2022) Web. 20 Oct. 2022.

4) Power, J.. “Jubal A. Early (1816–1894)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 18 Sep. 2022.

5)  Southern Virginia, Franklin Junction Historic Railroad Park Web. 18 Sep. 2022.

6) “Roanoke and Southern Railway Company” Virginia Tech Library Special Collections Web. 18 Sep. 2022.

7) Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1896; from Enlarged Business Atlas University of Alabama Map Library  Web. 18 Sep. 2022.

8)” Boones Mill Depot Historic Register” Virginia Department of Historic Resources (16 Mar. 2017) Web.. 18 Sep. 2022.

9) W. F. DeKnight. Letter to  R.S. Lacey October 15th, 1866  VIRGINIA EDUCATION, SCHOOL REPORTS, REPORTS ON SCHOOLS, TEACHERS, AND BUILDINGS, JULY 18, 1866–OCT. 6, 1868 Smithsonian Transcription Web. 18 Sep. 2022.

10)  W.F. DeKnight correspondence, June (11,15,17 &20) 1867  VIRGINIA EDUCATION, UNREGISTERED LETTERS RECEIVED, APR. 1867–JULY 1868 Smithsonian Transcription Web. 18 Sep. 2022.

11) “The Freedman’s Spelling-Book,” The American Tract Society Remaking Virginia: Transformation Through Emancipation, Virginia Memory Web.  20 Oct. 2022.

12) Ours, Robert M., “Virginia’s funding legislation, 1869-1875: its back s funding legislation, 1869-1875 : its background, principal features, related measures, and effects” (1974) Master’s Thesis.

13) Tarter, Brent. “Readjuster Party, The” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (18 May. 2022). Web. 19 Sep. 2022.

14) The Daily State Journal February 9, 1871 “The Legislature of Virginia”  Virginia Chronicle Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

15) 1870 Virginia Superintendent of Instruction Report Hathi Trust Digital Library Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

16) 1860 Census and Slave Schedules, Franklin County, VA.

17) Sublett, Charles W, “The 57th Virginia Infantry” (1985)

18) US Freedmen’s Bureau Records, Franklin County, VA, 1866.

19) “Appointments” Tri-Weekly News June 7 1872 Virginia Chronicle Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

20) “Camp Meeting” World News, February 6, 1915 Virginia Chronicle Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

21) 1872 Virginia Superintendent of Instruction  Report Hathi Trust Digital Library Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

22) “Resigned” Daily Dispatch September 13, 1876 Virginia Chronicle Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

23) Power, J.. “Jubal A. Early (1816–1894)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 18 Sep. 2022.

24)Early, Jubal A. Autobiographical Sketch and Narrative of the War Between the States. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1912 (https://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/early/early.html) Web. 19 Sep. 2022.

25)Janney, Caroline. “The Lost Cause” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (24 Feb. 2022). Web. 19 Sep. 2022.

26) Piston, William. “James Longstreet (1821–1904)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 19 Sep. 2022.

27) Warren Street Historical Society Archive, “Warren Street Festival Program: “From Where We Came” (2000 & 2001).

28)”Franklin County Map” Virginia Highway Department 1933 Virginia Historical Inventory Library of Virginia Web. 19 Sep. 2022.

29) Warren Street Historical Society Archive Photo Collection 

30) Washington, Booker T., 1856-1915 Up from Slavery: an Autobiography. Garden City, N.Y. :Doubleday, 1963. University of North Carolina Web. 19 Sep. 2022.

31)”From Slave Cabin to Hall of Fame” Booker T Washington National Monument National Park Service Web. 19 Sep. 2022.

32) Wells, Jeremy. “Booker T. Washington (1856–1915)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 19 Sep. 2022.

33) Engs, Robert, and Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “Samuel Chapman Armstrong (1839–1893)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 19 Sep. 2022.

34) McClure, Phyllis. “Rosenwald Schools” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (28 Sep. 2021). Web. 19 Sep. 2022.

35) History South, Rosenwald Schools Web. 19 Sep. 2022.

36)1911  Virginia Superintendent of Instruction Report Hathi Trust Digital Library Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

37) Franklin County VA Historical Indstudial Past Present and Future (1926) Ancestry.com Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

38) “Ferrum History” Ferrum College Web. 19 Sep. 2022.

39) Marshall Wingfield, Franklin County, Virginia: A History (Berryville, Va.: Chesapeake Book Company, 1964).

40) “Teachers are Named for School Term” Franklin News and Post, September 7, 1945 Virginia Chronicle Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

41)  Davis, Jackson. Ferrum Training School, Methodist, White, University of Virginia Library Web. 17 Sep. 2022.

42) “Rosenwald Schools in Virginia” Virginia Department of Historic Resources National Register Form  (12 Aug 2004) Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

43) Rosenwald School Floor Plans History South Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

44) “Heritage” Bluefield State University Web. 21 Jul. 2022.

45) “Bluefield State College” African American History, Black Past Web. 21 Jul. 2022.

46) “James vs. West VIrginia Board of Regents” Justia US Law (13 Jan. 1971) Web 21 Oct. 2022.

47) Trotter Ruby In-person Interview 28 Jun 2022.

48)“Negro School News, Franklin News and Post, October 11, 1940 Virginia Chronical Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

The Brown School 360 Tour

Image Works Cited

Warren Street Historical Society Archive, “Warren Street Festival Program: From Where We Came” (2000 & 2001)

Warren Street Historical Society Archive Photograph Collection.

“Brown School, Franklin County” Aug. 1935 Library of Virginia Web. 2 Nov. 2022.

“A Historic Meeting.” Julius Rosenwald and Booker T. Washington: How Their Investment in People Led from Tragedy to Triumph Web. 29 Oct. 2022.

“Rosenwald School Floor Plans” History South Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

“Franklin County School Teachers” The Franklin News-Post August 25, 1960 Virginia Chronicle Web. 2 Nov. 2022.

Wade, Bonnie. The Gap Branch School 28 Jun. 2022.

Longenecker, Lewis.  Photograph of the Brown School. 28 Jun. 2022. Authors Personal collection.

“About Lee M. Waid Elementary School” Franklin County Public Schools Web. 3 Nov. 2022.

“Booker T Washington National Monument” Virginia 211 State Parks Web. Nov. 2022.

“Sale of Seven School Lots” Franklin News-Post April 13, 1961 Virginia Chronicle Web. 2 Nov. 2022. 

Content Works Cited

Warren Street Historical Society Archive, “Warren Street Festival Program: From Where We Came” (2000 & 2001).

“Rosenwald Schools in Virginia” National Register Form Virginia Department of Historic Resources (12 Aug. 2004) Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

“Annual Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction of the Commonwealth of Virginia with Accompanying Documents: School Years 1923-24 and 1924-25” Hathi Trust Digital Library. Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

Rosenwald Appomattox, Feb. 1932 Library of Virginia Web. 2 Nov. 2022.

Trotter, Ruby In-person Interview, 28 Jun. 2022.

Mcenheimer, Connell In-person Interview 28 Jun. 2022.

“Sale of Seven School Lots” Franklin News-Post April 13, 1961, Virginia Chronicle Web. 2 Nov 2022.

Footnotes for Cumberland County Slides

1) Virginia County Map and Independent Cities GIS Geography Web. 03 Sep. 2022.

2) Graham, H. S, and E Hergesheimer. Map of Virginia: showing the distribution of its slave population from the census of. Washington: Henry S. Graham, 1861. Map. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, Web. 5 Sep. 2022.

3) Vaughan, M. K.  “Crucible and Cornerstone— A History of Cumberland County, Virginia.” Atlanta: Economic Development Administration of the Southern Regional Education Board (1969).

4)”Cumberland Church”Farmville, VA April 7, 1865 American Battlefield Trust Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

5) Allen, C. F. H. “Tidewater and Western Railroad.” The Railway and Locomotive Historical Society Bulletin, no. 114, 1966. JSTOR, Web. 7 Oct. 2022.

6)Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1896; from Enlarged Business Atlas University of Alabama Map Library  Web. 18 Sep. 2022.

7) Davis, Jackson. Tidewater and Western RailRoad Train University of Virginia Library Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

8)Butchart, Ronald. “Freedmen’s Education in Virginia, 1861–1870” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (07 Dec. 2020). Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

9) Fannie Woods Letter to John W. Jordan Dec. 22, 1866 Freemen’s Letters Web. 22 Jul. 2022.

10) Farmville District Freedmen’s Schools List November, 1867 Web. 22 Jul. 2022.

11) Fannie Woods Letter to John W. Jordan April 6, 1867 Smithsonian Web. 22 Jul. 2022.

12) Phillips, Sally, and Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “John Robinson (1825 or 1826–1908)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 22 Oct. 2022

13) “The African American Odyssey: A Quest for Full Citizenship” Free Blacks in the Antebellum Period Library of Congress Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

14) Tarter, Brent, and Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “Samuel F. Kelso (ca. 1825–1880)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

15) “The 1st Call for Independence” Cumberland in Cumberland County, The Historical Marker Database (16 Jun. 2016) Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

16) Dungee, G.. ““The Passing of John Robinson” from the Richmond Planet (January 25, 1908)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (07 Dec. 2020). Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

17) “Historic Architectural Survey of Cumberland County” Virginia Department of Historic Resources (17 Oct. 1994) Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

18) “About Richmond Planet” Library of Congress Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

19) McCrery, Anne, Errol Somay, and Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “John Jr. Mitchell (1863–1929)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

20) “Latest Election News”The Farmville Mercury, November 4, 1875 Virginia Chronicle Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

21) Tarter, Brent, and Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “James F. Lipscomb (1830–1893)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

22) “The Radical Republicans” Civil War American The Battlefield Trust Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

23)“The Farmville Mercury, and Official Advertiser for Prince Edward, Cumberland, Buckingham, Appomattox and Neighboring Counties (Farmville, Va.) 1873-1881” Library of Congress Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

24)”Mary Elizabeth Branch” Women in Texas History Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

25) 1850 Census and Slave Schedules Cumberland County, VA Ancestry.com Web. 3  Jun. 2022.

26) “Notable Citizens,”Farmville Herald and Farmer-Leader, October 22, 1948 Virginia Chronicle Web. 3  Jun. 2022.

27) 1872 Virginia Superintendent of Instruction  Report Hathi Trust Digital Library Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

28) Cassell, Charles E, et al. Map of Cumberland Co., Virginia. [Virginia: Chief Engineer’s Office D.N.V, 1864] Map. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, Web. 9 Jul. 2022.

29)“The People of Cumberland Speak,”Daily Dispatch, February 27, 1879.Virginia Chronicle Web. 3  Jun. 2022.

30) 1879 Virginia Superintendent of Instruction Report Hathi Trust Digital Library Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

31) 1911 Virginia Superintendent of Instruction Report Hathi Trust Digital Library Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

32) Tarter, Brent. “Readjuster Party, The” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (18 May. 2022). Web. 19 Sep. 2022.

33) Marilyn M. White, “We Lived On an ‘Island”‘: An Afro-American Family and Community in Rural Virginia, 1865-1940 (1983).

34) Julienne, Marianne, and Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “Shed Dungee (1831–1900)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

35) “Virginia Politics,” Valley Virginian, December 11, 1879. Virginia Chronicle Web. 3  Jun. 2022.

36) Morgan, Lynda, and Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “Samuel P. Bolling (1819–1900)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (02 Aug. 2022). Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

37) W. E. B. Du Bois, “The Negroes of Farmville,. Virginia: A Social Study,” Bulletin 14 (January. 1898) Fraser Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

38)Wolfe, Brendan. “Danville Riot (1883)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (07 Dec. 2020). Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

39) Gunter, Donald, and Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “Phillip S. Bolling (ca. 1849–1892)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

40) Gruver A.B. “Virginia Teachers Directory” Shenandoah Normal College, 1900 Web. 03 Sep. 2022.

41) Engs, Robert, and Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “Samuel Chapman Armstrong (1839–1893)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

42) Moton, Robert Russa. Finding A Way Out. New York: Doubleday, Page and Company, 1920. University of North Carolina Documenting the American South Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

43)Davis, Jackson. The Old Negro School, Cotton Town Taught at One Time by Maj. RR. Moton University of Virginia Library Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

44) “Graduates Department,” Southern Workman, April 1, 1897 Virginia Chronicle Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

45)“A Trip-A-Field,” Southern Workman, December 1, 1901 Virginia Chronicle Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

46) ”Hamilton High School: National Historic Register Virginia Department of Historic Resources (13 Oct. 2007) Web. 18 Sep. 2022.

47) Hamilton, Cumberland County. N.p., 1936. Library of Virginia Web. 18 Sep. 2022.

48) Cumberland C.H. N.p., 1929 Library of Virginia Web. 18 Sep. 2022.

49) “Cumberland Training School  Duly Accredited,”

Farmville Herald, March 31, 1933.Virginia Chronicle Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

50) “Rosenwald Schools in Virginia” National Register Form Virginia Department of Historic Resources  (12 Aug 2004) Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

51) Seawell, Sue C. “The Leading Ladies of Cumberland” The Farmville Herald, 27 Apr 1986. Virginia Chronicle. Web. 30 Oct. 2022.

52) Luther P. Jackson H.S., Cumberland. N.p., 1961. Library of Virginia Web. 18 Sep. 2022.

53) Jim Crow to CIvil Rights in Virginia, Virginia Museum of History and Culture Web. 22 oct. 2022.

54) “From Lucyville,” National Pilot, February 1, 1900 Web. 6 Aug. 2022.

55) “Virginia Republicans Bar Negro Voters of State” Peninsula Enterprise, July 23, 1921Virginia Chronicle  Web. 6 Aug. 2022.

56) “What are the Negro’s Going to Do?”Central Call, August 14, 1920.

57) “African Americans and the New Deal” Digital History Web Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

58) Heinemann, Ronald. “Carter Glass (1858–1946)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 23 Oct. 2022.

59) Heinemann, Ronald. “Harry F. Byrd (1887–1966)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 23 Oct. 2022.

60) Earnest Adolphus Finney  World War II Draft Card Oct 16th 1940 Ancestry.com Web. 23 Oct. 2022 

61) “Negro In Chatham Facing Trial Today,” Suffolk News Harald, July 21, 1941. Web. 6 Aug. 2022.

62) “Democrats hear Carter Urge to Arm to Teeth”  Nelson County Times 20 June 1940 Web. 23 Oct. 2022.

63)Ferrell, Henry. “Claude A. Swanson (1862–1939)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 23 Oct. 2022.

64) “Case Against Ernest Finney, Charged With Arson Thrown Out of Court this Morning” Danville Bee, July 25, 1941 Web. 6 Aug. 2022.

65) “Ernest A. Finney” University History, University of South Carolina Web. 6 Aug. 2022.

66) Gaynor, Edward. “Jackson Davis (1882–1947)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (12 Jan. 2022). Web. 23 Oct. 2022.

67) Meeting with Cumberland Teachers October 3, 1913, Farmville Herald Virginia Chronicle Web. 6 Aug. 2022.

68) Davis, Jackson. Old and New Colored Schools New Hope (Cumberland, VA).University of Virginia Library Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

69) Davis, Jackson. Nottoway County Training School. University of Virginia Library Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

70) Davis, Jackson. New Rosenwald School Gloucester County Training School University of Virginia Library Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

Cumberland Training School and Luther P. Jackson High School 360 Tour

Image and Video Works Cited

Chapman, Rob. ”Old School has a past.” The Farmville Herald, 5 Apr. 1996. Virginia Chronicle. Web. 29 Oct. 2022.

“Rosenwald School Floor Plans” History South. Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

“A Historic Meeting.” Julius Rosenwald and Booker T. Washington: How Their Investment in People Led from Tragedy to Triumph Web. 29 Oct. 2022.

“County Public Schools Will Open September 4.” The Farmville Herald and Farmer Ledger, 10 Aug. 1956. Virginia Chronicle. Web. 29 Oct. 2022.

Chapman, Rob. “Education Tour.” The Farmville Herald, 14 Apr. 1999. Virginia Chronicle. Web. 30 Oct. 2022.

Hedlund, Peter “Virtual Tour of Pine Grove School, Cumberland County” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities (May 2021) Web. 30 Oct. 2022.

“Pine Grove School.” YouTube (8 Jun. 2020) Web. 30 Oct. 2022.

Longenecker, Lewis.  Photograph of the Cumberland Education Advancement Center Civil Rights in Education Historical Marker. 20 Jul. 2022. Author’s Personal collection.

Longenecker, Lewis.  Photograph of the “Our Place in History” Monument. 20 Jul. 2022. Author’s personal collection.

“Bells Ring at New School in Cumberland.” The Farmville Herald 9 Sep. 1952.  Virginia Chronicle. Web. 30 Oct. 2022.

Content Works Cited

Seawell, Sue C. “The Leading Ladies of Cumberland” The Farmville Herald, 27 Apr. 1986. Virginia Chronicle. Web. 30 Oct. 2022.

Chapman, Rob. ”Old School has a past.” The Farmville Herald, 5 Apr. 1996. Virginia Chronicle. Web. 29 Oct. 2022.

“Rosenwald Schools in Virginia” Historic Register Form, Virginia Department of Historic Resources (12 Aug 2004) Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

“Annual Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction of the Commonwealth of Virginia with Accompanying Documents: School Years 1921-22 and 1922-23” Hathi   Trust Digital Library. Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

“County Public Schools Will Open September 4.”The Farmville Herald and Farmer Ledger, 10 Aug 1956. Virginia Chronicle. Web. 29 Oct. 2022.

“Obituary of Betty Lou Scales.” The Marian Gray Thomas Funeral Home (16 May 2015). Web. 30 Oct. 2022.

Chapman, Rob. “Education Tour.” The Farmville Herald, 14 Apr 1999. Virginia Chronicle. Web. 30 Oct. 2022.

”A Tuskegee Rosenwald School.” AMMD Pine Grove Project. Web. 30 Oct. 2022.

“Bells Ring at New School in Cumberland.” The Farmville Herald 9 Sep 1952.  Virginia Chronicle. Web. 30 Oct. 2022.

“1940 Federal Census, Randolph District Cumberland County.” Ancestry.com Web. 30 Oct. 2022.

Dickerson, Dennis. “Luther Porter Jackson (1892–1950)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

Footnotes for the Appomattox County Slides

1) Virginia County Map and Independent Cities GIS Geography Web. 03 Sep. 2022.

2) Graham, H. S, and E Hergesheimer. Map of Virginia: showing the distribution of its slave population from the census of. Washington: Henry S. Graham, 1861. Map. Retrieved from Library of Congress, Web. 5 Sep. 2022.

3) A History and Geography Supplement for use in The Public Schools of Appomattox County (1933).

4)”Appomattox Station” Appomattox County, VA April 8, 1865 American Battlefield Trust Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

5) ”Appomattox Court House ” Appomattox County, VA April 9, 1865 American Battlefield Trust Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

6) “Appomattox Court House Cultural Landscape” National Park Service (17 Jan. 2020) Web. 24 Oct. 2022.

7) Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1896; from Enlarged Business Atlas University of Alabama Map Library  Web. 18 Sep. 2022.

8) “Grant at Appomattox Court House”THE ODYSSEY OF ULYSSES Appomattox Court House National Historical Park  Web. 18 Sep. 2022.

9) Benjamin Chute to Rev. R.M. Manley, November 14, 1866 Smithsonian Web. 24 Oct. 2022,

10) Lynchburg Freedmen’s Bureau Office, July 28, 1869 Smithsonian Web. 24 Oct. 2022,

11) Julienne, Marianne, and Brent Tarter. “Public School System in Virginia, Establishment of the” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (13 Dec. 2021). Web. 24 Oct. 2022.

12) “Radical Reconstruction” US History.org Web. 24 Oct. 2022.

13) Tunnell, Ted, and Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “Edgar Allan (1842–1904)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 24 Oct. 2022.

14) “Members of the Convention Elected” The Daily Dispatch October 29, 1867 Virginia Chronicle Web. 24 Oct. 2022.

15) Jordan, Ervin, and Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “J. W. D. Bland (1844–1870)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 24 Oct. 2022.

16) Gottlieb, Matthew, Brent Tarter, and Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “Frank Moss (d. by August 6, 1884)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 24 Oct. 2022.

17) Sweeney, James. “Democratic Party of Virginia” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (20 Apr. 2022). Web. 24 Oct. 2022.

18)Census and Slave Schedules Appomattox County, VA (1860).

19) Drinkard, Betty “Chapman Hunter Chilton” Biographies Appomattox United Daughters of the Confederacy Web. 3 Jun 2022.

20) 1872 Virginia Superintendent of Instruction Report Hathi Trust Digital Library Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

21) Atkinson, Frank. “Republican Party of Virginia” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (12 Jul. 2021). Web. 25 Oct. 2022.

22) “Flood, Henry De La Warr” History, Art and Archives US House of Representatives Web 25 Oct. 2022.

23)   Report of the Proceedings and Debates of the Constitutional Convention, State of Virginia:
Held in the City of Richmond, June 12, 1901, to June 26, 1902. Hathi Trust Digital Library Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

24)“Teachers and Schools Appomattox County 1908-1909”

Appomattox and Buckingham County Times. October 28, 1908 Virginia Chronicle  Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

25) “Appomattox Historic District” National Register Form  Virginia Department of Historic Resources (16 May 2002) Web. 23 Oct. 2022.

26) Featherton, Nathaniel R. “Appomattox County History and Genealogy” Clearfield 2009.

27) “A History and Geography Supplement for Use in the Public Schools of Appomattox County” Appomattox County School Board 1933.

28) Grade Building, Appomattox, Appomattox County 1936 Virginia. Department of Education. School Buildings Service Library of Virginia Web. 23 Oct. 2022.

29) “Teachers and Ex-students,”Southern Workman, March 1, 1923 Virginia Chronicle Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

30) Marilyn M. White, “We Lived On an ‘Island”‘: An Afro-American Family and Community in Rural Virginia, 1865-1940 (1983).

31) “”Hampton Workers” Southern Workman, April 1, 1921 Virginia Chronicle Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

32) Appomattox Rosenwald, Appomattox, Appomattox County 1932 Virginia. Department of Education. School Buildings Service Library of Virginia Web. 23 Oct. 2022.

33) “Reflections” The Carver Price Legacy Museum Web. 28 Oct. 2022.

34) “Carver Price Legacy Museum” The Civil Rights History Project: Survey of Collections and Repositories The Library of Congress American Folklife Center Web. 28 Oct. 2022.

35) Winonah Camp / Mozella Price Home, Appomattox, Virginia Civil Rights in Education Heritage Trail, The Historical Marker Database Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

36) “Minstrel Songs” The Library of Congress Celebrates the Songs of America The Library of Congress Web. 28 Oct. 2022.

37) Appomattox and Buckingham County Times,  October 14, 1908 Virginia Chronicle Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

38) Smith, C.W. Appomattox County 1845 – 1945 (1945) Appomattox Historical Society Web 28 Oct. 2022.

39) “Our Heroes Remembered” Appomattox and Buckingham County Times, June 13, 1906 Virginia Chronicle Web. 28 Oct. 2022.

40) Janney, Caroline. “The Lost Cause” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (24 Feb. 2022). Web. 19 Sep. 2022.

41) Flora Belle WIlliams Commonwealth of Virginia Death Certificate 4/16/76 Ancestry.com Web. 28 Oct. 2022.

42)  “Miss Williams Retired Teacher, Buried Sunday” Farmville Herald  Virginia Chronicle Web. 28 Oct. 2022.

43)  “Teaching Peace in Appomattox,” Southern Workman, September 1, 1936  Virginia Chronicle Web. 28 Oct. 2022 .

44) “School Teachers Announced,”Times Virginian, August 29, 1946. 

Carver-Price School 360 Tour

Image Works Cited

Rosenwald Appomattox, Feb. 1932, Library of Virginia. Web. 2 Nov. 2022.

“A Historic Meeting.” Julius Rosenwald and Booker T. Washington: How Their Investment in People Led from Tragedy to Triumph Web. 29 Oct. 2022.

“Rosenwald School Floor Plans” History South. Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

Longenecker, Lewis.  Photograph of the Carver Price Civil Rights in Education Historical Marker. 20 Jul. 2022. Author’s Personal collection.

Longenecker, Lewis.  Photograph of the Camp Winonah Mozella Price Home Civil Rights in Education Historical Marker. 20 Jul. 2022. Author’s Personal collection.

“Taxpayers are Asked to School meetings.” The Times Virginian; September 18, 1952.

“School Teachers Announced”, The Times Virginian, August 29, 1946.

Content Works Cited

“Rosenwald Schools in Virginia” National Register Form, Virginia Department of Historic Resources  (12 Aug 2004) Web. 13 Oct 2022.

“Annual Report of Superintendent of Public Instruction of the Commonwealth of Virginia with Accompanying Documents: School Years 1923-24 and 1924-25” Hathi Trust Digital Library. Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

Rosenwald Appomattox, Feb. 1932 Library of Virginia Web. 2 Nov 2022.

“Reflections”, The Carver Price Legacy Museum Web. 28 Oct. 2022.

“Rosenwald School Floor Plans”, History South. Web. 13 Oct. 2022.

Johnson, John D. Phone Interview, 27 Jun. 2022.

Humbles, Stephen. In-person Interview 19 Jul. 2022.

“Taxpayers are Asked to School Meetings”, The Times Virginian, September 18, 1952.

“School Teachers Announced”, The Times Virginian, August 29, 1946.

Emancipation Oak and Hampton Institute 360 Tour Works Cited

“Emancipation Oak” Virginia Roadside Historical Marker Hampton, Virginia, The Historical Marker Database, (13 Oct. 2012) Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

“Emancipation Oak: Thirst for Knowledge” Virginia Civil War Trails Historical Marker Hampton Virginia The Historical Marker Database (31 Jul. 2010) Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

“Samuel Chapman Armstrong: The Education of the Freedmen is the great work of the day” Hampton University Hampton, Virginia, The Historical Marker Database (27 Feb. 2021) Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

“Booker T. Washington Birthplace” Near Hardy in Franklin County, Virginia, The Historical Marker Database (25 May. 2013) Web. 22 Oct. 2022.

Longenecker, Lewis.  Photograph of the “Booker T. Washington: The Nation’s Foremost Black Educator” Hampton University Historical Marker. 7 Jul. 2022. Authors Personal collection.

“Peter Jacob Carter” Franktown in Northampton County, Virginia, The Historical Marker Database (25 May 2013) Web. 22 Oct 2022.

Gunter, Donald, and Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “Peter Jacob Carter (1845–1886)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (22 Dec. 2021). Web. 06 Nov. 2022

Longenecker, Lewis.  Photograph of the “Samuel P. Bolling” Virginia Roadside Historical Marker. 1 Apr. 2022. Author’s Personal collection.

Morgan, Lynda, and Dictionary of Virginia Biography. “Samuel P. Bolling (1819–1900)” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, (02 Aug. 2022). Web. 05 Nov. 2022

Longenecker, Lewis.  Photograph of the Carver-Price School Civil Rights in Education Historical Marker. 20 Jul. 2022. Author’s Personal collection.

Longenecker, Lewis.  Photograph of Winonah Camp/ Mozella Price Home Civil Rights in Education Historical Marker. 20 Jul. 2022. Author’s Personal collection.

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